In the previous article, “If Revival Comes—China’s Church on the Brink of a Fifth Cycle,” I noted that if Chinese Christianity enters a fifth cycle, it would face at least two deficiencies: (1) gospel ministry aimed at corporate spiritual formation and (2) the development of a systematic and holistic theological understanding. I am convinced that Chinese Christianity will indeed experience this fifth cycle of revival. If so, the deficiencies that revival will face must be addressed and completed by the future Chinese church. I emphasize “the future Chinese church” because the current forms and structures of the church in China neither recognize the needs of a coming revival nor are able to proactively grow—indeed, to change—so as to carry it. Therefore, before the next revival, today’s church in China will inevitably enter a process of upheaval, reorganization, and re-stabilization, forming a new structural ecosystem capable of laying the groundwork for renewal and carrying forward the next phase of revival.
In this article, drawing on observation and research, I outline the current structural forms of the church in China, analyze the present upheaval, and discuss how reorganization and stabilization may unfold.
Current Structural Forms
The church in China today is composed of several forms: Three-Self churches (三自教会), evangelical churches (福音派教会), Assembly Hall (Little Flock) churches (聚会处/小群), Wenzhou churches (温州教会), Reformed Presbyterian churches (中国改革宗长老会), Reformed Baptist churches (中国改革宗浸信会), and emerging urban independent churches (新兴城市独立教会).
Because these forms differ in history, pace, and perspectives—and have coexisted for roughly three decades—the church in China is undergoing notable upheavals: conflicts between old and new ideas, between theology and tradition, and over succession. These tensions appear within each form, between forms, within China’s changing environment, and in the search for a way forward. Below are representative snapshots.
Conflicts Between Old and New Ideas
Conflicts between older and newer approaches are widespread. To keep the church from straying, many senior leaders adopt conservative strategies—holding fast to past doctrines, traditional methods, and even outdated assumptions in the name of safety. Yet they often lack the courage and wisdom to address the younger generation’s questions amid rapid social change, resorting instead to denial, intimidation, or suppression.
Younger believers tend to respond in two ways. Some practice silent resistance—they attend but do not speak, serve, or submit. Others choose direct confrontation—leaving to found new churches, which brings division. This upheaval will continue for a time. During it, some tradition-bound elders will step aside; their successors will—however imperfectly—adapt to generational change and eventually stabilize new patterns. Other elders, recognizing the times, will use their deep spiritual lives, experience, and resources to support the next generation, helping them stand on solid foundations while stepping onto the “stage of history” with fresh vision. Meanwhile, independent and emerging urban churches, after early enthusiasm cools, collisions among coworkers, and pressure from ideal–reality gaps, will see minor splits and recombination. Most will stabilize with distinct characteristics; some will not endure.
Conflicts Between Theology and Tradition
Since the early 21st century, conflicts between theology and tradition have become more visible. The tension is not between “the Bible and church history” and some holistic theological outlook; rather, it is often one specific theological camp versus tradition, or one camp versus another.
Given that the contemporary Chinese church spans little more than 160 years, theological understanding before 2000 was often vague and piecemeal, accumulated in practice rather than formed systematically. After 2000, more pastors and seminarians trained overseas returned and began promoting theological education. While positive in intent, implementation brought shock and resistance. Promoters sometimes underestimated the gap, assuming diligent instruction alone would raise comprehension; instead, the gap produced confusion. In other cases, promoters themselves lacked systematic and holistic grounding, promoted their own camp excessively, and when narrowness or error surfaced, observers rightly questioned or criticized it.
As this dynamic continued, some groups standardized and color-coded their theological identity to distinguish themselves—often heightening antagonism. This upheaval will likely persist until, through painful lessons and self-examination, groups are drawn toward systematic and holistic theology—which is broad, rich, and capacious. From there, churches holding different theological views can move from antagonism to enrichment, recognizing both shared essentials and their own gaps, and gradually emphasizing common faith over badge-displaying differences.
The Upheaval of Succession
Succession tensions are playing out now as the third generation of Chinese pastors (post-1901) reaches retirement, while the fourth generation assumes leadership unevenly.
- Leader shortage and aging congregations. Many rural (and some urban) churches struggle to find successors; third-generation pastors are sometimes the “younger” ones on site.
- Distrust of successors. Some current pastors assess candidates by standards such as endurance, humility, obedience, and self-denial. The next generation, formed in different conditions, embodies these differently, which fuels concern; yet older pastors often lack means to shape successors who meet their expectations.
- Power and control. With church growth, some leaders accumulated significant money and power, lost the fear of the Lord and commitment to truth, and chose compliant successors while suppressing others. Conversely, some potential successors, impatient to take charge, challenge and attack predecessors.
- A healthier path. Some senior pastors, mindful that the church belongs to Christ, use their spiritual foundation and resources to support the next generation, walking with them until they release leadership unconditionally. The younger generation, grateful for the Spirit’s trust and the elders’ confidence, leads with clearer vision and renewed hope. This pattern—each generation serving the next—can stabilize succession and better position the church for a new revival.
A Note on Complexity
The church in China has developed in a distinct environment and system, largely independent from patterns elsewhere. A defining feature is the absence of a widely recognized governance framework or growth order; most structures formed organically in practice, yielding high complexity and diversity. This article does not aim to exhaust every situation; rather, it summarizes numerous real cases to offer multi-angled understanding and to encourage reflection, learning, and preparation for the next revival.
Appendix: Brief Introductions to Key Forms
Three-Self churches (三自教会). Agencies within the state religious administration. As the only public, legal Protestant entities, their planning and development are directed by government departments; thus, they follow extra-ecclesial rules. A few independent congregations within the system attempt more organic development but do not alter the overall framework.
Evangelical churches (福音派教会). Large and diverse. As identities clarified, especially after the Boxer Rebellion, churches emphasized self-propagation, self-governance, and self-support. Facing liberal theology, many asserted an evangelical stance; some could articulate confessional roots; many could not—yet still identified as evangelical.
Assembly Hall / Little Flock (聚会处/小群). Associated with Watchman Nee, with clear theology and ecclesial practice, influential in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Shanghai, Henan, Shandong, and the Northeast. Marked by strong tradition-bound adherence, rigorous practice, and cautious engagement with other groups.
Wenzhou churches (温州教会). A distinct ecosystem found across China and globally, largely founded and led by people from Wenzhou. They share a strong entrepreneurial ethos, frequent partnerships with well-known domestic and overseas actors, and readiness to pilot projects and ministries. Historically strong on public initiatives, they have recently invested more in full-time pastoral training and theological education, becoming early movers in these areas.
Reformed Presbyterian & Reformed Baptist churches (改革宗长老会/改革宗浸信会). Both rose in recent decades. Reformed Presbyterians emphasize Reformed/Calvinist theology and have grown in influence through close ties with like-minded overseas churches and notable figures/events. Reformed Baptists have expanded more moderately, often rallying around Nine Marks of a Healthy Church, gradually forming networks and scale.
Emerging urban independent churches (新兴城市独立教会). Proliferated in the last 30 years, often founded by overseas missionaries, returnees, and young urban believers. Generally smaller, flexible, and frequently non-denominational (or early in denominational learning and development).
